Enzyme Inhibitors in Breast Cancer Therapy Coursework

Enzyme Inhibitors in Breast Cancer Therapy - Coursework Example Among all of the different types of cancer, breast cancer is the highest cause of death in women between the ages 20 and 59, having been responsible for 32 percent of all new cancer cases in 2003. In most patients, the metastases at distant sites of the body become the main cause of death. The rates of metastasis and mortality in breast cancer patients have recently decreased with the aid of early diagnosis by mammographic screening and the implementation of adjuvant therapy. Aromatase inhibitors may be used as adjuvant therapy, first-line, second-line or even third- line therapy (Cunnick et al 2001). Third-line therapy uses the medicine if patients relapse after the second treatment, which followed an initial treatment. Adjuvant therapy, on the other hand, aids in the eradication of breast tumor cells that might have already metastasized to different organ systems by the time of diagnosis. Cancer cells are characterized as having the ability to be viable under stressful conditions. Growth and survival factors activate a variety of intracellular signal transduction pathways; these pathways play a critical role in the regulating growth, differentiation, and senescence, and have been found to prevent apoptosis under many circumstances (Ripple et al 2005). The ability of cancer cells to metastasize to other organ systems results in smaller chances of curing the disease. Common phenotypes of metastatic cancer cells have been found to be (1) unregulated growth and survival, (2) decreased cell to cell adhesion, (3) increased ability in degrading the extracellular matrix, and (4) increased motility (Zhang et al 2005). Cancer cells have been found to possess altered apoptosis signals, which are transduced by the p53 tumor suppressor gene. The said gene regulates the expression of multiply apoptosis-inducing proteins that act upon the mitochondria. Normal cells are induced to apoptosis through the intrinsic pathway, where cytochrome c is released from the mitochondria. The liberated cytochrome c binds to apoptotic protease, activating dactor-1 (apad-1), which assembles into an oligomer called the apoptosome. The apoptosome then recruits and activates caspase-9, which triggers a proteolytic cascade, resulting in cell death. In cancer cells, excessive mitotic signals activate the intrinsic pathway, as a result of mutations within signaling pathways (Mashima et al 2005; Ripple et al 2005).

Windeby Girl Essay Example for Free

Windeby Girl Essay The body was found in 1952 in an estate called Windeby in Northern Germany. It was discovered when the owners decided to cut the peat to sell for fuel. During the process, the body of a 14 year old girl was found, however at that time, the machinery had already caused some damage to the body. It severed a leg, a foot and a hand. Work was then immediately stopped to investigate the find. State in which the body was found When the body was first found, parts such as the hand and hair were very well preserved by the bog. Her brain was said to have retained its size and shape. The chest had, at the time, decayed and the ribs were visible. The hair had been shaved on one side and there was a blindfold over her eyes. There was a leather collar around the body’s neck, and due to the long hair and small frame, it was instantly assumed to be a girl. Why did she die? There are different theories as to why Windeby died. The first interpretation when the body was found was that she was killed as punishment for adultery. Her head was shaved, led out naked with a cloth covering her eyes and leather collar around her neck then drowned in the bog. Another body was found about five metres from Windeby Girl, it was that of a man, and at the time was said to be her partner in the acts. However, this was later unproven as further investigation was done on the bodies. Carbon dating showed that Windeby Girl died during the first century AD, whereas her supposed partner lived three centuries earlier. Due to the fact that there were no signs of trauma or struggle according the evidence on the body, ideas that this may have been a sacrificial ritual were proposed. Later Investigation: Windeby Girl is a Boy In 1952, when Windeby Girl was first found, the discoverers assumed that she was girl due to the long hair and small frame. In 1970, Heather Gill-Robinson, a biological anthropologist, examined the body’s skeleton and proposed that the body could in fact be a boy. More than 30 years later, in 2007, a DNA testing was done ad a professor from North Dakota State University proved that the body was indeed male. The DNA and bone testing also showed that the boy may have been malnourished and was often sick during his life. This lead to the theory that the boy may have simply died due to natural causes and the blindfold was there to â€Å"protect the living from the gaze of the dead† or may have merely been a band to hold back his hair and slipped down due to shrinkage of the body. His half bald head maybe have also been due to careless excavation or natural causes such as decay over time.

The Bureaucracy Of The United States Government Politics Essay

The Bureaucracy Of The United States Government Politics Essay The Executive Branch of the federal government of the United States of America is charged with the task of exercising the powers of the government over its citizens as well as enforcing the laws created by the Legislative Branch, the Congress. Although overseen by one person, the President of the United States, many more people are involved in the process. The United States Congress consists of a fair number of people from the 535 elected members and their personal staff members to the support staff who work in the Capitol Building itself. The Judicial Branch as well has many members from the Supreme Court Justices to other Federal Judges in lower courts. However the Executive Branch contains the most members in its complicated and massive bureaucratic system. All organizations, administrations, and agencies, often part of what is referred to as the Federal alphabet soup due to the many abbreviations, that fall under this branch originate from some power granted by the somewhat vague Article II of the United States Constitution, or as means of exercising the powers granted to Congress in Article I. While the federal bureaucracy demonstrated in the executive branch may appear to be massive and complicated, the goal is to bring about an understanding of its purpose in the United States government and how it plays a role in an ordinary citizens life. In almost every aspect of ones life, a person must interact in some way, direct or not, with a federal agency from the Internal Revenue Service for tax payment to the Department of Labor ensuring fair payment for a persons work, or the Occupational Safety and Health Administration which ensures a persons safety in the workplace. By having increased understanding in the purpose and operation of such departments in the federal government, a citizen is more able to have true understanding of issues pertaining to them that have potential to influence their voting for not only the President, but also members of Congress. The reason I have selected this topic to focus on in my research is primarily due to the fact that, outside of Presidential actions, the importance of the rest of the people in the Executive Branch is often not taught in Social Studies classes or high school political science-based classes. Students are taught that the role of the Executive branch is to enforce the laws passed by Congress, but the actual process of how such action occurs seems to be missing. In some cases in my research I was surprised when I began making connections between ideas, especially when I began to realize the sheer size of some departments. Therefore, for my own sake, I would like to look into this dark and mysterious area so as to enlighten myself and become better informed how agencies that already affect me operate and who is truly in charge. Literature Review The Federal Bureaucracy Within the Executive Branch of the United States government is an administrative center where the laws created by Congress are put into action. According to Lowi, Ginsberg, Shepsle, and Ansolabehere (2011), from an organizational standpoint, the bureaucracy is a system created by the elected politicians seeking to accomplish objectives as well as solve issues created by the nature of collective action (p. 272). A law cannot be put into action without supporting systems in place to ensure compliance, regulate actions of those affected, and so forth. Because of this connection, the system of executive agencies exists in a unique balance between two branches of government, Executive and Legislative. Carpenter (2005) notes that, while these agencies operate under the President of the United States, departments including, but not limited to, defense, education and agriculture are truly operated by Congressional action and mandate. Because of this the true nature of this bureaucracy is sha ped, perhaps, not by the Chief Executive, but rather by the Legislature. The clear path for analyzing such as system as is found in the federal government is to begin with its creation. For the United States this is to look at the men who created its Constitution and through their work shaped the future of the nation. Looking at the document itself reveals little information to assist in an understanding of the idea. Article II of the US Constitution states that the executive power is given to the President, and further reading only elaborates a minor amount to state that he is also the Commander in Chief of the armed forces, but only two minor clauses give any indication to the actual powers granted to this position. The first indicates that the President may require the heads of executive departments to give their opinion to him, such as advice, related to their duties for their department (U.S. Const. art. II, Â §2, cl. 1). The second establishes the presidents power to appoint people to positions such as ambassadors, Judges and others with the consen t of Congress (Ibid., cl. 2). These two clauses alone shed little light on the powers given to the President and how the bureaucracy was created. As previously noted, the other aspect of the federal bureaucratic system lies in its role of executing the laws created by Congress. Article I of the Constitution enumerates many specific powers given to Congress which, while they are able to create legislation to regulate such areas, the actual execution or regulation occurs through agencies and departments of the executive branch. Therefore it can be taken that the task of such groups, as well as the President as Chief Executive, does not need to be as clearly stated due to the already clarified powers of Congress. However, this seems not to be the truth behind the significant lack of information presented in the Constitution about a piece of the government that now, in hindsight at least, is the most relevant to the everyday citizen. Perhaps at the time of writing the document they were unaware of the significance of such a branch, or, as Irons (2006) argues they simply wished to not focus on such an issue. Instead they preferred to focus even more on the Legislature they were creating and would focus on the presidency at a later date (pp. 37-40). Departments of the Executive Branch In the early years of the United States, the departments falling under control of the executive branch were few in number, yet significantly large for the time. In fact, these departments began under the idea of committees of areas including correspondence, claims, and war to avoid creating departments too similar to colonial bureaucracy experienced under British rule. These committees are the equivalent to the modern-day State Department, Department of the Treasury, and Department of Defense, respectively (Carpenter, 2005, p. 45). However, this was quickly dropped in favor of the disliked, yet highly effective executive agencies seen in Britain and France at the time. These few departments, however, were significant in their size as Carpenter explains. He notes that in the early 1800s, the US Post Office Department employed over 8,000 employees, larger than many private companies at the time. This does not even consider the size of the military departments especially in a time where the United States continued to face many conflicts, including the War of 1812 (Ibid., p. 42). Andrew Jacksons presidency is significant in the expansion of executive departments and is viewed by some to be the creator of the American bureaucracy. Crenson (1975) argues this point citing Jacksons significant reorganizations of several departments during his administration in the 1830s. Major changes occurred in the Post Office and General Land Office, as well as multiple, lesser changes in both the War and State Departments. Additionally he targeted the Treasury Department and Navy Department but was denied these changes by Congress (p. 3). The idea of reorganizing a department is important in the creation of a bureaucracy because it takes vague ideas of operational standards, stripping them from the people performing them, and redefines them as abstract functions (Crenson, 4). These functions are no longer related to a specific person, but rather a role within the institution that must be filled and put into action. The department loses personal ideas in favor of uniform and e fficient operation, an effect that may be positive or negative given an individual departments situation. The influence of presidents on the bureaucracy they control has been mostly maintained throughout its history through the spoils system. This system is the collective idea that once a person is elected to a position of power, they will give those they like or those from whom they want support positions of importance within the government, namely as a departmental head within the bureaucratic system. Andrew Jackson is one of the presidents known best historically for major change in the positions of the bureaucracy. Crenson notes that in a significant number of departments Jackson took people important from his campaign and past endeavors giving them grand supervisorial positions within the executive branch. Research Statement The bureaucracy of the executive branch of the United States government is an incredibly important structure to the operation of the federal government and the nation collectively. Every person, on a regular basis, must interact in some form with one or more of the departments, agencies, or corporations within the executive branch. Because the structure is so massive and complex with structured employee and supervisor roles it can be complicated to fully understand how it operates and its impact on the lives of citizens. As such, further study must be completed for a person not otherwise familiar with the organizational structure and politics of such a system for complete understanding to be attained. Based in the information already presented, it is clear that there is a unique history to the system of bureaucracy that exists within the United States government. This is especially true in the influence both the President and Congress have on the operation and scope of the departments. How, therefore, do the department and cabinet members of the executive branch function in regard to decisions by the President of the United States? Additionally, as demonstrated by Andrew Jackson, the president has an important role in the selection of important members of bureaucratic agencies. How, in this case, do presidents, namely Presidents Jackson and George W. Bush, shape the operations of these departments on an institutional level as well as personally with department heads and cabinet members? The questions above are significant to a discussion of the American bureaucracy because the role of the president as chief executive of the branch is of significant importance to the operation of the agencies falling under his power. Additionally, because each president is given the authority to appoint persons of his choosing to significant positions within the agencies, it is clear that this would give him power to control the agencies in manners in line with his political partys ideology. Full comprehension of this matter is important to understanding the overall operation of the agencies within. Research Findings Departments and the President The function of bureaucrats within the executive branch is determined largely by Congress through bills passed by them; however, the President holds an important role in shaping the manner in which agencies operate within the scope of such Congressional statutes. Shane notes that since the 1960s the President of the United States has changes roles from being an overseer of the executive branch to one who makes decisions for the agencies. Congress, in passing bills which shape the role of the executive branch, tends to be somewhat non-specific in its language, often to please both parties and allow such a bill to pass. As a result, the directives to the executive agency may leave room for Presidential policy to be implemented (2009, p. 147). That is to say that the method by which a Congressional statute is carried out can be dependent on the political views of the President. The President can make such decisions in multiple ways, from creating administrative rules and suggesting poli cies to the departments within the executive branch to his selection of administrators for these departments, to be analyzed more fully in the following section. The Presidents control of the bureaucracy is described as a principal-agent problem. (Lowi, et al., 2011) The idea in this situation is that the bureaucratic agencies must satisfy the desires of both Congress and the President, lest Congress pass more specific legislation or perhaps decrease their budget and scope of authority or the President seek to change the organizations structure to suit their desires. Therefore the agency will wish to respect the Presidents desire for bureaucratic drift for the sake of the continuation of their position. Bureaucratic drift, as used by Lowi, et al., is the difference between the original legislations intentions and the final outcome as implemented in the executive branch. President Franklin Roosevelt is a good example of the direction the White House as a collective, that is to say more than the President and to include his advisors and other staff members, provides to its agencies. He created in 1937 the Committee on Administrative Management which was an official way in which a group of experts, along with the President, could monitor bureaucratic action and enforce Presidential decisions in the agencies (Lowi, et al., 2011). President George W. Bush also made clear his views of the power of the President to have the authority to specify how executive agencies were to operate within the confines of Congressional statutes. Shane states that during the first six years of the G. W. Bush administration, that is 2001-2007, he objected 363 times when signing bills noting that Congress may be stepping on his executive power to direct agencies with their bill (2009, p. 155). Such a direct statement makes clear that many people believe the President to have significant power in the operational procedures for the agencies within the Executive Branch. Shane notes, however, that while the President does have significant policy setting power within the executive branch, agencies are not required to follow such requests as they are not hard and written law, but rather have the power of suggestion. The recourse a president could take against agencies not following such Presidential policy is to modify the organizations leadership structure as will be seen in the next section. However, just as an agency not following the Presidents desires can find themselves in a tough situation, the reverse is also true. A president who publicly declares displeasure with an agency and an attempt to change the way it operates often finds himself in a less than ideal situation in which he appears to be in the wrong. Shane (2009) notes that the desire for appearing to be a strong and powerful president often stops such drastic backlash against the department f rom happening for the sake of public image. Even so, the President still maintains a significant role in determining the execution of Congressional statutes in the operational policies of executive bureaucracy. Administrators and the President The President has significant power to determine policy within the executive branchs bureaucracy in two ways. The first, dictating policy to the agencies, has been analyzed previously and now the focus can be shifted to the second power of the President, nomination of departmental administrators. Although Congress must approve all appointments the President makes, unless a significant problem exists with a nomination it will generally be supported by Congress. Lowi, et al. (2011) speaks about the many controls a President has on the operation of the bureaucracy, and the importance of before-the-fact controls. They suggest that the most powerful control of this sort a President can have is that of the appointment process. There are many reasons that this power is so significant to a president. First, the appointment process allows a president to select administrators for the departments that, ideally, share his political view and are on good terms with him so that when he makes an exe cutive decision over the agencies he can expect the decision to be carried out as he wished. Secondly, this process, by selecting trustworthy individuals, allows a president to be comfortable knowing that they do not need to constantly be a watchdog for the agencies because they can trust the administrators who are running such agencies. Andrew Jackson was, according to Crenson (1975), the first president to truly utilize the power of the appointment to its fullest. In addition to the previously mentioned bureaucratic reorganizations he implemented with the help of Congress, he also appointed many administrative positions, carefully selecting people to create a more personal bureaucracy for him to work with. Amos Kendall was a prime example of Jacksons ability to handle administrative appointments well. He was appointed a chief clerk and in his work created strict bureaucratic policies for those he oversaw, exactly as Jackson wanted to happen. A quality appointment leads not only to a bureaucracy that operates as a President wishes, but also to one that recognizes his power as Chief Executive (Crenson, 1975, p. 75). To see the opposite scenario in which a poor appointment of someone not in line with presidential opinion, as well as poor handling of bureaucratic operation, one can analyze the appointment and work of Christine Todd Whitman by President George W. Bush. Whitman was selected to be the head of the Environmental Protection Agency shortly after Bush won the 2000 election. Flanders argues that her appointment was motivated by a desire to balance Bushs planned appointments, as Whitman was often described as a quite left Republican, or a liberal conservative. Again we see here the impact of public view, and Congressional opinion, of bureaucratic operation and how the President must step carefully through such decisions. Whitman served less than two and one-half years as the head of the EPA for several reasons. The media often wrote about her clashes with President Bush over policy for the EPA, as well as Bushs White House staff members and his own suggestions as to the dissemination of inf ormation to the public about pollution and environmental safety. Of particular note was the EPAs role after the attacks of September 11, 2001 in their analysis of the safety in New York City. Although denied by Whitman afterward, there is distinct evidence, according to Flanders that the White House put pressure on her to release false information, as well as the White House also altering press releases on the topic of air quality. Almost immediately after the attacks Whitman declared the air safe to breathe and said there was no concern for people to return to work. President Bush wanted Americans to continue on in their lives and keep the nation, especially its economic center, moving forward. Many scientists within the EPA warned that the asbestos levels alone were of significant concern, but their opinions were drowned out. The example of Christine Todd Whitman is important because it demonstrates what can happen when a president and those he appoints do not get along in terms of policy views. A good choice for department head can turn bad when such policy is central to an administration, and when an administrator resigns as a result, public image is not positive for the President. Stepping back from specific examples, it is clear that the President of the United States has a significant impact on the operation of the federal bureaucracy. From appointments to setting policy guidelines, even within Congressional statutes, the executive power is quite massive. Congress provides the bureaucratic agencies with the mandate of what they are to do, but the President sets the tone for how such action is to be accomplished. The relationship between President and the departments of the executive branch is historically very significant to the operation of the nation as a whole.

Joseph Stalin Essay -- Russian History, Politics

Joseph Stalin ruled the Soviet Union from 1922 until his death in 1954. He is widely recognized as a dictator, an oppressor, and a ruthless ruler who took the Soviet Union from economic shambles to a superpower, but with the high cost of human sacrifice and his paranoia of opposition. Stalin saw himself as the natural successor of Leninism-Marxism, but in actuality he created a system of his own which did not go according to the philosophy of Karl Marx and Engels. Stalin’s early political career began just like everyone else who gained prominence in the Bolshevik takeover of the Russian Empire. Lenin had successfully launched his revolution in October, 1917 and became the leader of the Russian Communist Party until his death in January 1924. Stalin played only a minor role in the October Revolution and a relatively inconspicuous part in the Civil War (Lee 1). Stalin was sent to exile in Siberia for committing crimes in Russia, and after his return he became a member of the Cen tral Committee of the Bolshevik Party in 1912. Stalin worked to gain support in the Communist party during its early stages. He created close contacts that he would later betray, and others which he would use to help him become the next leader of the Soviet Union. He accumulated the posts of People’s Commissar for Nationalities in 1917, liaison official between the Politburo and the Orgburo in 1919, and General Secretary of the Party in 1922 (Lee 1). Soviet books and propaganda always portrayed Stalin having a close relationship with Lenin, as seen in textbooks, propaganda posters, and Stalin himself who always spoke highly of his friendship with Lenin. However, Lenin and the Bolsheviks thought differently of Stalin. The 1920s and early 1930s saw the rise a... ...’s unorthodox rise to power, to his brutal economic policy, it was a form of true dictatorship and turned the Soviet Union into a totalitarian state. Karl Marx wrote that the techniques of exploitation by the bourgeoisie would lead to a violent revolution by the proletariat, and it would change the economic and social order of the state. In this case, Stalin exploited his proletariat and acted as a bourgeoisie, using the labor force for his personal gain and what he thought would be the best way the Soviet Union would ever become a superpower. Joseph Stalin took the idea of Marxism and added his own theory to it, distorting it and creating a new system of politics that is coined â€Å"Stalinism.† It has its similarities, but largely it is a split in ideology that would cause the deaths of 20 million people during his rule, something Karl Marx, or Lenin never intended.

king lear Essay -- essays research papers

Shakespeare's King Lear   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  William Shakespeare's King Lear had downfalls in character which later on caused him to suffer extreme consequences. if anyone knows the true meaning of suffering it is King Lear.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  King Lear's downfalls are his pride, selfishness, and blindness to truth. Pride as one of Lear's first downfalls, in the beginning Lear disowns his lovely daughter Cordelia, because Lear is to blind to realize that cordelia loves her father for who he is and NOT what he has in his possession. Lear sees his daughters for what they have as far as quantity not quality. This is his downfall of selfishness. Lear offers his two greedy and selfish daughters, Coneril, and Regan his entire kingdom, simply because he is so damn conceded and thinks he is so great that he can not possibly see anyone not loving him, and what he owns as far as land and power. His greedy daughters realize this and then decide to kiss a little of their father's butt. Cordelia, and Regan go and kiss their father's butt hoping to get all his power, and his kingdom. On the other hand, his one daughter who loves him for what he is, not what he is or has, realizes that she must play on her fathers side just to receive a little respect from the king.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Lear, by toying with loved one's emotions endues consequences upon himself. Even at his age ,he was still perfectly capable of living up to his duties ...

The Great Gatsby :: The Great Gatsby F. Scott Fitzgerald

I. Francis Scott Key Fitzgerald, born in St. Paul, Minnesota, grew up in an upper-middle class family where he enjoyed the traditions of the upper classes, but not the financial ability to uphold those practices. Fitzgerald acquired his fame, almost overnight, with the publication of his first book, This Side of Paradise, in 1920. His extensive career began with the writing of stories for mass-circulation magazines, such as The Saturday Evening Post. That same year, he married Zelda Sayre, who later became one his major influences on his writing, along with literature, Princeton, and alcohol. In the summer of 1924, Fitzgerald wrote The Great Gatsby, a novel about the American dream. This novel was written in Fitzgerald's own time. The reader is able to see his insight and artistic integrity in the way that which the novel is composed. He brings forth the values that he embraced at least partially in his own life, such as materialism and the magic of wealth, which are clearly placed i n the characters of The Great Gatsby. The novel is almost a paradox of his own biography: a unique materialism in which men attempt to create happiness from material achievement. The novel received the most striking critical appraisal, just as predicted by Fitzgerald. This honorary event marked the climax of his fame, however, his reputation faded from then on. With the illness of his wife, he reflected his experiences in his further work, such as Tender Is the Night. Some other examples of his work include The Beautiful and Damned and The Love of the Last Tycoon. At the age of forty-four, Fitzgerald dies of a heart attack. Since his death, critics have come to see his work as a reflection of the American culture and of "The Twenties", a noteworthy representation of his people that is saturated with meaning today. II. The story of Gatsby takes place in the 1920's, a time that began with the closing of the bloodiest conflict the world had ever witnessed. The European society had suffered spiritually from the effects of World War I, yet life in America became a time of material demand. The twenties are best known as a decade when American business was riding high and increases in productivity brought hundreds of new products within the reach of the average consumer. The widespread impact of the stock market downturn heightened the popular view of the importance of the economy during the 1920's.

Learning Denied Essay

Controversy over the special education of apprentices with learning inability into usual classrooms provides substantial evidence in favor of special education. Although the heated debate which has risen over the pros and cons of special education remains intense, arguments supporting special education tend to outweigh those against special education. Protesters of special education think only of the children with a high chance of academic success. In my opinion, the apparent query is who has the right to judge that only mentally advantaged children should be afforded the opportunity of a normal classroom education? After all, more than just academics are learned in the classroom. Social interaction skills, for instance, also play a huge role in the education process. Simply because mentally disabled children do not have great academic potential does not mean they should be stripped from the experience of attending a regular classroom. In an investigation done by eight graduate students, ninety-three students from two inner-city public elementary schools were observed. The reason was to scrutinize the dissimilarities amongst apprentices with learning inability, students with little educational accomplishment, and learners with regular educational success. In each of the 22 classrooms involved in the study, two children labeled as learning disabled were mainstreamed. To some extent unexpected outcome of the trial was that the students with education disabilities showed a better school commitment than the learners with small attainment. In addition, the pupils with learning disabilities demonstrated a huge attention in the school lesson and, as a result, established more awareness from their teachers. The data received from the research investigation proves that disabled children, like other children have the desire and self-motivation to learn. This fact contradicts the statements made by opponents of special education, who claim that learning disabled children in the regular classroom will bring down the level of learning of the average students. Instead, it seems from the outcome of the investigation that the opponents of special education need to admit that it could be the children with low academic attainment, rather than the children with learning disabilities, that bring down the average students’ level of learning. Although children with learning disabilities may not fare as well on tests as low or average achievers, their presence in the regular classroom certainly will not hinder the success of the other students. It is a known fact that students will respond according to the expectations placed on them (Denny Taylor, 1990). Another concern of many protesters of special education is that learners with disabilities have social difficulties. They believe that learning-disabled students that are incorporated into the standard classroom will become outcasts. I agree with who claim that the special education of disabled students results in better socialization skills for the disabled children. In a study of the social relationships of students in special education classrooms, researchers found that learners with disabilities were well incorporated into the regular classroom social setting. The results clearly disprove the concern that students with learning disabilities would be outcasts in a regular classroom. Another advantage of special education pointed out by experts is that exceptional children in a mainstreamed classroom will learn to accept people despite their differences. Nondiscrimination is an important life lesson, and special education provides the opportunity for children to learn it. In addition to reducing discrimination among peers, special education promotes a system of cooperation. Students are forced to work together and create a cooperative, not competitive, environment. All of the previous listed advantages of special education are part of the goal of mainstreaming which is to â€Å"create a classroom/community where all children can work together, learn, and develop mutually supportive repertoires with peers and adults. † Realizing mainstream or special needs education depends on many factors outside and inside the school. Mainstreaming or special needs education should be part of an encompassing development in society, in which the concept of disability and the position of people with disabilities and/or special needs are changing. In this perspective, persons with special needs should be seen as citizens who have rights within the society as a whole, and no longer should they be seen primarily in terms of their need for special care and treatment; the last to be treated for reasons of efficiency and convenience in special settings. Regardless of special need (handicap or disability), everybody should be treated as an integral member of society. The particular services essential must be offered inside the structure of the communal, learning, physical condition, and other services accessible to all associates of society. Without a solid inclusion-oriented people, comprehensive schools are not possible. Inclusion in education should be measured as one of the numerous features of inclusion in society (Mary Konya Weishaar, 2000). Solution to the Issues: A main task for the administration is to generate sufficient circumstances for the completion of inclusive or special needs education. Without sufficient government involvement, and without the government playing a leading role in promoting legislation, giving financial support, and developing policies, inclusive education will only receive lip-service. An obvious, complete, and decisive strategy declaration might take steps as a means to all stakeholders in teaching: policymakers, majors, educators, parents, amalgamations, non-government associations, referring organizations, and other experts. Schools and, therefore, principals, teachers, and parents are the active agents in the process of developing and implementing plans for mainstream or special needs education. Special education depends heavily on how schools organize their education and what teachers do in their classrooms. If the uniqueness of every child is the central focus of the school system, then finding manageable ways to meet those specific, individual needs is the main responsibility of the regular classroom teacher. Special education is not just an issue of placement of a special needs student in the regular classroom setting; it means both innovation and changes in regular schools as well as in special education schools (Arlene Sacks, 2001). Conclusion: The focus of the inclusive, special needs approach therefore is to support the regular special education school system, that is, the management, the regular classroom teacher and others involved in the teaching process. It should be part of a total school-wide reform resulting in some fundamental changes of policy, philosophy, structure, organization, curriculum, the instructional process, and the management of resources of the regular school. The most important meaning in this attitude modification ought to be that a regular instructor senses an ethical and societal obligation, and is capable and prepared adequately to offer teaching to learners with special wants, making utmost utilization of the resources that are offered. In order to achieve this attitude change, pre-service and in-service training should be provided, not only for teachers working in the program but also for principals and other personnel involved. The true coordinators of the special education process are the teachers. Each pair of teachers that work together must have the desire to teach all children in the least restrictive environment. The extra time and planning involved in creating such an environment requires an enormous amount of devotion. Jamaicans owe everything to the caring teachers who go out of their way to help our country’s children. If only everyone could see the benefits reaped from special education instead of showing a stubborn resistance to change, more children would gain the opportunity to succeed in life. Children are our future, and each child, regardless of intellectual capability, deserves a fair chance. References: Taylor, Denny. 1990. Learning Denied. Published by Heinemann. Hofstra University Foreword by William L. Wansart Weishaar, Mary Konya. 2000. Inclusive Educational Administration: A Case Study Approach. Published by McGraw Hill Sacks, Arlene. 2001. Special Education: A Reference Handbook. Published by ABC-CLIO